Claims, evidence and reasons

A claim tells us what someone wants us to accept. A reason explains why we should accept it, and evidence supplies information that can support or challenge it. Reasoning is the connection between the support and the conclusion. Making that connection visible helps us understand an argument before agreeing or disagreeing.

The examples on this page are invented for learning. Their numbers and situations are not findings from a real school or study.

Identify the claim

Start by asking: “What is the speaker saying is true, or saying should happen?” An argument may contain several claims. Find the main conclusion, then distinguish it from the claims used to support it.

These parts can overlap. A reason can use evidence, and a supporting statement can itself need support. The purpose is to understand the argument, not to force every sentence into one permanent category.

A worked fictional argument

During one lunchtime, eight of the ten pupils interviewed inside the library said they wanted more quiet seating. Therefore, every pupil in the school wants silent breaktimes.

The number gives the statement an air of precision, but we still need to examine the step from information to conclusion.

Two improvements are needed. First, keep the finding within its actual scope. Second, investigate the wider question with an appropriate method if it matters to the decision.

A better-supported statement would be: “Eight of the ten library users interviewed that lunchtime wanted more quiet seating. That gives us a reason to investigate demand for additional quiet space.” It leaves open what the rest of the school wants.

Examine relevance and sufficiency

Evidence should be relevant to the claim, but relevance is not enough on its own. The amount, quality and coverage of support matter too.

• Relevance: Does the information address the question? A count of books borrowed does not directly show whether pupils want silent breaktimes.
• Method: How was the information obtained? A voluntary suggestion box and a carefully selected sample answer different questions.
• Coverage: Who or what is missing? One lunchtime may differ from another.
• Strength: How far does the support justify the conclusion? “Some of these respondents…” requires less than “every pupil always…”.

Finding a limitation does not make evidence useless. The fictional interviews could still be useful when planning a more focused enquiry. The error is making them carry a conclusion they cannot support.

Different questions need different support

The 2021 Ofsted research review discusses matching methods of enquiry to the subject being studied. It is dated research background, not a statement that this particular activity meets an inspection requirement.

Measuring demand can inform a discussion about fairness. It does not decide every question about fairness by itself. A majority preference, for example, still needs to be considered alongside the reasons for protecting access for a smaller group.

Notice assumptions in an ethical argument

A second fictional example: “The reading club has twelve places. We should give all the places to pupils who have attended before, because they already know how the club works.”

The reason concerns familiarity. The conclusion concerns who should receive a place. The argument assumes that familiarity should outweigh other considerations, such as giving new pupils an opportunity. That assumption needs to be explained and examined.

A reasonable objection could be: “If the same pupils always receive every place, others never get the chance to learn how the club works.” A response might propose some returning members and some new members, but it would still need to justify that arrangement.

Notice that an objection can challenge the connection between a reason and conclusion even when the stated fact is accepted.

Consider alternatives

Before rejecting or accepting an argument, try three checks:

1. Another explanation: Could the evidence fit a different explanation?
2. A counterexample: Is there a relevant case that challenges an unrestricted claim?
3. A revised conclusion: Could a narrower claim be supported without discarding useful information?

In the library example, quieter seating and silent breaktimes are different proposals. Recognising that difference improves the question before more evidence is collected.

Apply the method

Use the claim, evidence and reasoning worksheet to record five things: the claim, its support, the connection, an assumption and a further question.

For a short practice task, analyse this original fictional statement:

One member found the discussion useful, so this activity will work equally well for every class.

Sample response: The evidence is one person's reported experience. It can support a claim about that person's response, but the conclusion extends to every class. It assumes that classes and teaching conditions are sufficiently alike. A useful further question is what other learners and teachers experienced, and under what conditions.

Teachers can assess whether pupils identify the actual conclusion, explain a connection and recognise a limit. Accept different wording when the reasoning is sound. For further challenge, ask pupils to revise an overconfident conclusion while preserving what the evidence does show.

The approach fits the attention to enquiry and evidence described in Hwb's Humanities guidance; the worked examples are original teaching suggestions. Continue with evaluating sources or use the respectful disagreement guide to discuss a different conclusion.